Purpose This study aims to examine the impact of liquidity creation per capita of tri-banking system and dual banking system on real economic output. Design/methodology/approach This study applies the feasible generalized least square framework on the data set of 12 countries, 8 with tri-banking system and 4 with dual banking system over the 2013-2022 period. Findings The findings show that for countries with tri-banking system, only liquidity creation by full-fledged Islamic Banks (FIBs) and hybrid conventional banks (HCBs) spurs real output, with the impact of HCBs being greater than that of FIBs. Nonetheless, for countries with dual banking system, both FIBs' and pure CBs' (PCBs) liquidity creation fosters real output. However, the impact of PCBs is slightly greater. Finally, Granger causality results confirm only the positive impact of the tri-banking system's liquidity creation on real output. Practical implications For countries with tri-banking system, only HCBs' and FIBs' liquidity creation spurs real output. However, for countries with dual banking system, liquidity created by both FIBs and PCBs fosters real output. However, only liquidity created by tri-banking system has a unidirectional Granger causality with real output. Originality/value To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first study that examines the impact of the banking subsystem liquidity creation on real economic output. Examining the impact of the liquidity created by this banking subsystem on the real economy is important for both regulators and policymakers.

We examine the impact of the liquidity creation of Full-fledged Islamic Banks (FIBs) and Hybrid Conventional Banks (HCBs) on real economic output for a sample of 10 countries over the 11-year period from 2012-2022. Using the Feasible Generalized Least Squares (FGLS) framework, we show that both FIBs and HCBs liquidity creation per capita impact real economic output positively. However, HCBs have a greater impact on real economic output than FIBs. These results are statistically and economically significant. We further examine the impact of the liquidity created by both banking systems during the COVID-19 pandemic. Interestingly, for both bank types, liquidity creation has a negative impact on real output during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, in terms of magnitude, the negative impact is more pronounced for the HCBs. We also observe a non-linear impact of liquidity creation on real output, where the non-linearity is more pronounced among the HCBs. As for policy, our results imply that governments should incentivize FIBs to expand their scope and engage more in greenfield financing to have greater impact on real economic output.