A normative definition views crime as deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms-cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave normally. This approach considers the complex realities surrounding the concept of crime and seeks to understand how changing social, political, psychological, and economic conditions may affect the current definitions of crime and the form of the legal, law enforcement, and penal responses made by society. In the United States since 1930, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has tabulated Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) annually from crime data submitted by law enforcement agencies across the United States. Officials compile this data at the city, county, and state levels into the UCR. United States overall crime rate is displayed in two indices. The violent crime index comprises forcible rape, robbery, murder and assault. The property crime index consists of burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft. The crime rate is measured by the number of crimes being reported per 100,000 people.

This study will focus on assessing the total amount of damage and losses that has occurred during the 2014 flood disaster in Kelantan. The phenomenon of heavy rainfall during monsoon season is normal in Malaysia especially for the east coastal state areas between November to March every year. With the rainfall rate of 794mm which is 1.6 times higher than the average rainfall from the previous year, it has destroyed dwelling houses, animals, crops and also agricultural land. By using cross-sectional data analysis with Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method on 686 respondents in Kuala Krai, Kelantan, the results showed that early warning indicators such as Short Message Services (SMS) and other flood indicator instruments can reduce the risk of losses due to flood. Meanwhile, the ownership of insurance and an increase in household income is expected to reduce the burden of flood victims in the area.

There is available evidence from different parts of the world that floods and storm account for about 67 percent of the natural disasters. While, earthquake, landslides, drought, extreme temperature, wildfire and volcano eruptions contribute to the remaining 23 percent. In many developing countries, the frequent occurrences of natural disasters, particularly floods are not uncommon. Yearly recurrence of floods bring devastate economies. The objective of the present study is to investigate factors that can mitigate the impact of floods on human fatalities and damages. We use a panel of 79 countries for the period of 1981-2005 and employ the two-step system GMM estimator to show that the level of economic development, population, investment, openness and education impact flood fatalities, total people affected and total cost of damages.

The purpose of this paper is to find the meaningful relationship between the economic impact of the natural disaster and economic condition. The paper employed cross‐sectional analysis to investigate the relationship between economic condition namely, gross domestic product per capita (GDPpc); gross domestic product per capita squared (GDPpc2); government consumption ratio to GDP (gc); ratio of M2 over GDP(M2); years of schooling attainment (sc); land area and finally; population and the economic impact of natural disasters, whereby ten types of natural disasters were chosen. The degree to which the human and economic losses due to these ten natural disasters were measured by, the variables selected are, number of killed; total affected; and ratio of total damage to GDP. Three different points of time were regressed, namely, 1985, 1995, and 2005 covering 73 countries. Results clearly indicate that there seems to be meaningful relationship between the economic impact of natural disasters and economic conditions. The paper provides some evidence on the important role of economic condition in minimizing the impact of natural disasters. The paper incorporates a comprehensive list of explanatory variables in accounting for natural disaster fatalities.

Countries with high levels of human development should be able to reduce the impact of natural disasters in terms of the total numbers of people killed and affected, and damage. In this study we investigate the impact of human development indicators such as income per capita and human capital (education level) on natural disaster fatalities (total deaths, total affected and total economic losses) in 79 selected countries. Using dynamic panel data analysis, we found that the level of economic development plays an important role in mitigating the impact of natural disasters such as droughts, earthquakes, extreme temperatures, floods, storms, volcanoes, landslides and wildfires. Other factors that are found to determine the number of natural disaster fatalities include population, population density, unemployment, investment, government consumption, openness, education and corruption. Using the dynamic panel data model, we found that education, investment, government consumption and openness display an inverse relationship, while population and population density have a direct positive relationship.

Economists recognise that macroeconomic and financial variables have an impact on housing prices. In this study, we focus on the relationship between housing prices and stock prices in Thailand using quarterly data from the first quarter (Q1) of 1995 till the last quarter (Q4) of 2006. The analysis is conducted within a multivariate setting that incorporates the Stock Exchange of Thailand Composite Index and housing prices, the real gross domestic product and the consumer price index. In this paper, the autoregressive distributive lags (ARDL) cointegration test is applied to examine the variables' long-run relationships. We then employ the ARDL, DOLS and ML approaches to estimate the long-run parameters and impulse response functions based on a vector autoregression (VAR) framework to explore their dynamic interactions. Our results indicate positive relationships between housing prices and the macroeconomic and financial variables chosen. As regards their dynamic interactions, we note significant responses of housing prices to shocks in the three variables.

Studies have shown that natural disasters could pose a spectrum of challenges to human development, especially in developing countries. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2004) estimates that low human development countries accounted for more than half of reported casualties due to natural disasters for the last two decades. The study also estimates that nearly 85 percent of the people exposed to natural disasters live in either medium or low human development countries. Other related studies have shown that corrupted officials in poor countries would increase the vulnerability of these countries to natural disasters. Thus, the purpose of the present study is to investigate the impact of human development indicators, such as income per capita and human capital development (education level), as well as corruption (a measure of governance) on fatalities and damages due to natural disasters in selected 77 developing countries. By employing the two-step system GMM estimators, we identified several economic variables that are significantly related to fatalities and property damages due to natural disasters, such as flood, storm, earthquake, landslides, drought, extreme temperature, wildfire, and volcanic eruption. By exploring the impact of economic development, population density, unemployment rate, investment, government consumption expenditure, education, openness, and corruption, on disaster preparedness, it would be useful for both government and international disaster risk reduction and mitigation agencies to re-evaluate their approach towards target recipients in the future.